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2022 Edition

W H AT ’ S I N T H I S I S S U E ?

LAYERS

CONTENTS

04 Layers of the Universe 08 Layers of the Earth 12 Mysteries of the Ocean Layer 14 Tidal Layers 16 The Layers of Clouds 20 The Layers of the Atmosphere 22 Ice Cores of Greenland 26 The Layered Evolution of a Seal 28 Layers of the Soviet Union 32 Layers of Emerging India 36 Layers of Delhi 38 Cultural Layers of the One Child Policy 40 Layers of Nigeria 44 Layers of Social Inequality in the UAE 48 The Four Prominent Layers of Racism 50 Layers of Society 52 Layers of Languages 54 Layers of a Cake

The longer you are in a place, the more you get under its layers. Frances Mayes

Editorial Team 2021-22

Mr Westcott would like to thank the following students for their hard work on this publication: Yuvraj Juttla (Co-Editor; 5th Form), Max Garvey (Co-Editor; 5th Form), Dylan Patel (L6th), Amrit Sharma (4th Form), and Hari Kalsi (4th Form).

EDITOR

EDITOR

Grand Canyon Luca Galuzzi

EDITING TEAM

EDITING TEAM

EDITING TEAM

Welcome to the Geographical Magazine 2022 Edition. When we started our publication journey, the team decided they wanted to choose a broad topic which could span both human and physical Geography to best demonstrate the breadth of the subject, as well as entice writers, photographers, and readers alike. We would like to take this opportunity to thank all the students who have contributed to the edition, both with articles and photos, it would not be possible without you! Enjoy!

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T H E L AY E R S 0 F T H E U N I V E R S E

RISHI LAKHANI

THE LAYERS OF THE UNIVERSE

The Layers of Universe The Universe is so big. There are so many creatures and components in this world that we do not know about. Since it was created those 13.8 billion years ago, we have only discovered 4% of the observable universe- only the parts we can see. According to Edwin Hubble, the universe is expanding all the time. So, when the solar system was created 4.6 billion years ago, the universe was much smaller than in the present day. Of the 4% we can see, what are the layers of the universe? The Earth Home to all the living creatures we know of, the Earth has a diameter is about 13,000 km across. Three quarters of our home is water, with the rest being the land we take our steps on. Almost 8.7 million species of animals exist on Earth. Earth is the fourth smallest planet and the only habitable planet in the solar system. It is third from the Sun and has a natural satellite in the Moon. The Moon is nearly 4,000 kilometers in diameter and a total of 12 people have been to the moon, the first being Neil Armstrong in 1969. The Earth also has layers, including the Inner Core, Outer Core, Mantle, and Crust. The Sun The Sun is a star at the centre of the solar system. It was created about 4.5 billion years ago with all the other planets that we know of. The sun’s diameter is about 1.4 million kilometres wide and makes up 98% of the solar system’s total mass. Now you may be thinking, well that’s huge! Well, it’s not. In comparison, a red super giant is about 600 million kilometers in diameter. Our sun is also not the hottest star in the universe either; the hottest stars are the blue hypergiants with a surface temperature of 35,000 degrees Celsius, compared to the Sun’s 6,000. The sun is about halfway through its lifetime and is predicted to explode in another 4.5 billion years: where fusing hydrogen pressurises the core, causes the sun to redden, cool and inflate to 100 times its current size, engulfing Mercury, Venus and, most likely, Earth. The Solar System The solar system is what we call the neighborhood, where eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, >

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Uranus, Neptune) orbit the Sun. But it’s not just the planets and the sun that form the layers in the solar system, there are moons, asteroids, dwarf planets, and much more. Like Earth, some planets have one moon, whereas others have nearly 80! Jupiter is a much larger planet than Earth which means it has a stronger gravitational pull, therefore has the ability to pull in more objects to its orbit which explains its numerous moons. The main asteroid belt is situated between Mars and Jupiter. It contains around 1.7 million asteroids that are larger than 0.6 kilometers in diameter, and millions more smaller ones. There is also an asteroid belt beyond Neptune, called the Kuiper Belt, with about 100 million small asteroids orbiting the sun from a distance. The following criteria is required to be classified as a planet: star orbiting, spherical shape, large enough to clear other orbiting objects of a similar size. If a planet does not meet one of these three criteria, it is classified as a dwarf planet. There are five dwarf planets in the solar system, including Pluto which failed to be large enough to clear other orbiting objects of a similar size. Galaxies We live in the Milky Way. The Milky Way galaxy contains of tens of billions of solar systems, just like ours. The closest galaxy to us is the Andromeda Galaxy, even though it is almost 2.5 million light years away. If you want to know how long that is, it takes around 37,000 years to travel one light year, so I will let you do the maths! At the center of galaxies are usually black holes. Black holes are mysterious objects, and we know very little about them. The nearest is 1,500 light years away. But what we do know is that their gravitational pull is so strong that not even light can escape. They are usually formed when a huge star collapses upon itself. There are around 2 trillion galaxies and 1 billion trillion stars in the observable universe, so probably trillions of trillions more beyond what we cannot see.

The Universe The universe us everything we know and everything we do not! It contains all the wonders stated. The size of the universe defies the imagination, however big you think it is, it is probably bigger. The universe is so big, I can’t include all of it in this article. I can guarantee you that, if you were to research a little deeper, you would find hundreds of other amazing phenomena, like Hot Jupiters, or the Butterfly Nebula, or even more about the Big Bang!

THE LAYERS OUNF I TVHE ERSE

Northern Lights Manas Mapara

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L AY E R S O F T H E E A R T H

AMRIT SHARMA

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Layers of the Earth The weather and climate have a profound influence on the Earth and its inhabitants; the climate is part of our daily experience and is the premise for our health, food and well-being. The effects that humans have on the climate is arising to be a matter of concern, yet there are layers to what we can control and the effect this has on our world. This leads to the climate system, which consists of 4 major components: (1) atmosphere, (2) hydrosphere, (3) cryosphere, (4) land surface/ biosphere. All these elements are directly affected by the Sun, which is the largest external force that will be affecting these components. Atmosphere The atmosphere is defined as the layers of gases surrounding a planet, as the air and gases that engulf objects in space like planets and stars. It is the most unstable part of the climate system as it is always changing and changing alongside the Earth’s evolution. The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.93% argon. All these gases have very little interaction with the sunlight emitted but very few gases in the 1% absorb and emit infrared radiation. The result of these 15 interactions is greenhouse gases. 0.65% of the water vapour is known to be a natural greenhouse gas. Slightly lower down the earth (35km) is the ozone layer which plays an essential part in protecting the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The greenhouse gases formed put holes in our ozone layer and damage it to the extent where damaging radiation is reaching the Earth. Hydrosphere The hydrosphere is the part of the Earth’s surface that is covered by water; every body of water makes up this layer. This includes oceans, seas, rivers and lakes. Furthermore, the water on Earth is ironically not only on Earth but also within the atmosphere e.g. clouds, and also under the surface of the Earth e.g. water in frozen forms underground. In the case of the hydrosphere, the water molecules are absorbed by Sun. This leads to higher temperatures as the water is evaporated and thus the water cycle.

Cryosphere The cryosphere, including the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica, is all the frozen regions of the Earth. Examples of the cryosphere includes snow, sea ice, lake and river ice, icebergs, glaciers, and ice caps, ice sheets and ice shelves, permafrost and seasonally frozen ground, and solid precipitation. The cryosphere of the Earth is made up of these distinct types of frozen water and it contains three-quarters of the world’s freshwater. The cryosphere is highly reflective of all solar energy; the excessive amounts of water stored in all these ice sheets may cause sea levels to vary in their volume. Biosphere In terms of land surface, anything from vegetation to soil controls how energy received from the Sun is returned into the atmosphere. Therefore, the biosphere influences the amounts of some of the major greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide that come into contact with the rest of the atmosphere. The land surface may also be considered as a part of the biosphere as this is the portion where life is found and sustained. So, the sky where birds fly may be considered as the biosphere; in contrast higher up the atmosphere life cannot be sustained and is not part of the biosphere.

Crocodile Munro Todd

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The 4 major layers of the climate system all interact in a way to exchange behaviours and structure due to the flow of mass (the properties inside each layer), heat and moisture. The atmosphere and cryosphere exchange different gases such as CO2; CO2 is balanced by dissolving itself into the ice sheets in the cryosphere which will sink into the ocean and hits the surface again in warmer waters. This example shows us that there is limitless interaction with these layers, however, what we do know is that all the components of the climate system will result in climate change shown by the climate system. Although the various aspects of natural climate variations are caused by human influence on the climate system, the ultimate source of energy that drives the climate system into climate change is the Sun, which concludes that the Sun is the largest external force that will be affecting these layers as shown in the introduction.

Crocodile Tariq Ahmed

Dragon Fly Max Frenzel

Hippo Tariq Ahmed

British Sunset Kishan Popat

Trees Max Frenzel

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M Y S T E R I E S O F T H E O C E A N L AY E R : T H E B E R M U D A T R I A N G L E

MYSTERIES OF THE OCEAN LAYER: THE BERMUDA TRIANGLE

KARAM GIDDA

Coast Dhylan Halai

Triangle most likely is the reason for its dangerous characteristics. There are 11 other places similar to the Bermuda Triangle, and two are placed just below the poles, aligned horizontally, and the rest are perfectly aligned either side of the equator. Ivan T Sanderson, a paranormal traveller, recorded 12 vile vortices in the Bermuda Triangle and the 11 other locations. Another theory approved by scientists is that trapped methane being released from the seabed which hits the bottom of ships, destroying its buoyancy and creating a ‘trapdoor’ effect. Methane may also rise to reach planes and create explosions. Though the Bermuda Triangle remains unsolved, it is certainly a mystery of the Earth’s most elusive layer.

Mysteries of the Ocean Layer: The Bermuda Triangle

Bruce Gernon was flying a Beechcraft Bonanza plane in December 1970 to Miami with his father and business partner. This was a typical flight that Gernon took often, lasting 90 minutes with no issues. Shortly after take-off, at 1000 feet above the ground, Gernon spotted a quickly expanding cloud. He continued travelling towards it and reached it at 11,500 feet. He took no precaution of this rare expanding cloud and flew through it. As soon as he entered, he witnessed flashes of light like lightning that lit up the entire interior of the cloud. He could tell it was not lighting as he had been outside the cloud not long ago at all and experienced no lightning. According to his report, the cloud was quite cylindrical. Not long after entry, his electronics started to malfunction. He had to rely on his skill alone to pilot to his destination now. He saw a speck of light in the distance and directed towards it in a bid to bail out. To his relief, he burst out into a greyish haze. He immediately tried to contact ground control after some of his electronics restored, but ground control could not determine his location. He was off the radar. Not long after, ground control got hold of him on the radar and told him that he was in Miami. After Gernon had time to think, he found his journey to have lasted only 47 minutes as opposed to the usual 90, and also found that he had used significantly less fuel than usual too. Of course, this is very confusing, even to top professors. But some theorised that that dark energy may have created a curve in space-time, like a black hole does. However, this is still unproven, and the event is unexplainable. That same day, 84 sunspots were recorded, and solar wind was reported to be travelling at 44 miles per second. These anomalies could have

disturbed the Earth’s mesosphere, and this could have caused the electronic malfunctions. And scientists suggested that the expanding cloud was likely due to the area experiencing high and low pressures colliding. Most of you are probably aware that the number of shipwrecks and disappearance in the Bermuda triangle are hovering around about average mark (it is actually one of the busiest commercial shipping areas). But the reason that the Bermuda Triangle is dangerous is due to the consistency of electronic malfunctions, and sightings similar to that of Bruce Gernon. In short, it is capable of producing some very rare, but extremely powerful, geographical events. It is quite well known for radios to stop, electronics to malfunction and for compasses to spin like crazy in the triangle, and it is also well known to sight strange clouds. Scientists comment that most losses are caused by severe weather changes, shallow waters due to coral, and human navigation error (due to electronic malfunctions). The University of Colorado did a detailed study of the Bermuda Triangle by taking a range of images throughout the year and found that perfectly hexagonal shaped clouds are regularly found there, and they can act as air bombs, with winds over 170 miles per hour and waves around over 13 metres. Dr Simon Boxall has a well-respected theory that the Bermuda Triangle is a hotspot for wave systems to collide with each other, to create what he calls super waves. He says these super waves are rare but powerful, which makes sense as the number of disappearances in the Triangle are often rare and are followed by unsuccessful search missions. What is interesting, is that the location of the Bermuda

The ocean layer, our backbone for trade and travel, we know very little about it. In fact, since the early 1990s, we have known more about Mars’s topography than our own planet. And with the little amounts of understanding we have of our ocean, it makes sense that the ocean layer has some mysteries. The most famous mystery of our ocean layer is the Bermuda Triangle. Humans are inquisitive by nature and there are few features like the Bermuda Triangle that have the power to captivate and terrify us simultaneously. The Bermuda Triangle’s corners are based in Miami, Puerto Rico, and Bermuda. It spans over 500 thousand square miles in an area and has claimed over 200 aircraft, 2000 ships, and 1000 lives of official recorded losses or disappearances. Recorded anomalies in the Triangle go quite far back, with one of the most famous ones recorded by Christopher Columbus in the fifteenth century, when he witnessed a ‘great flame’ crashing into the sea, followed by a ‘bright white light’. Many scientists have since assumed this to be an asteroid encounter. Shakespeare even based his play ‘The Tempest’ on a shipwreck located in the Bermuda Triangle. More recently, the Bermuda Triangle was popularised by Hollywood and the many adventure and rescue films. Since then, many major accidents have been recorded. Famously, in 1918, a 500-foot long American ship sank along with 300 people onboard, more followed, with six planes sent to find the ship vanishing. Later, a very rare accident occurred, that still to this day can not be explained at all by researchers.

Stingray Anay Desai

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T I D A L L AY E R S

NIKHIL MEHTA

TIDAL LAYERS

Coast Dhylan Halai

tide with freedom of the open space of the quintessential humid shore. As I look forward to exploring the beaches of the world again, in the post-Covid era, I reflect on the beaches of Cuba, India and Thailand, that were amongst my fondest memories growing up. These beaches and their ecosystems are essential to the survival of our planet and as I continue to explore more beaches and experiencing the tidal activities I enjoy; I will do so with a view to protecting them for our future generations. It was saddening when seeing the effect of humans to Maya beach in Thailand, and I hope that the actions that have been taken will now protect the area’s coral reefs. The experience of the layers of tide at any point of day creates memories and feelings for everyone that last a lifetime, but we must ensure that this enjoyment comes with the care and consideration for our magnificent planet.

Tidal Layers Covid-19 has affected everyone in the world; schools were closed, work offices were closed, it was hard to catch a breath under our face masks and entire industries fell. The aviation industry took an incredibly hard hit as flights were cancelled and grounded with countries closing their borders. This meant that my family and I were prevented from taking a family break to enjoy the incredible beaches of Bali and Australia. Like everyone, we mourned the loss of the precious time. Post Covid, I wish to venture abroad and explore an exotic coastline. In preparation for this adventure, I thought I would dive into the geography behind tides and how they affect the constantly moving layers of a beach. Tides are formed by the Moon’s gravitational pull towards the Earth. As the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun, the moon orbits the Earth and attracts a gravitational pull. The side of Earth that directly faces the moon will have high tide. This tidal bulge is due to the gravity here being greater than the center of the Earth. High tide also occurs for the side that is facing away from the moon. This is due to the gravity being less than the center of the Earth. These tidal bulges rotate around the Earth as the Moon’s position changes. On Earth, the movement of low tide to high tide, that takes place every day, performs a transition of layers in the sea level. I cannot wait to experience the tide brushing against my bare feet as I stroll along the shoreline of a tropical country to view the breath-taking sunset. The Moon’s gravity is mostly responsible for our tides, but the Sun also plays a role. The Sun is much larger than the Moon. It has a mass of about 27,500,000 times greater than the Moon. A very large object like the Sun would produce tremendous tides if it were as near to Earth as the Moon. However, it is so far from the Earth that its effect on the tides is only about half as strong as the Moon’s. When both the Sun and Moon are aligned, the effect of each is added together, producing higher than normal tides called, spring tides. This makes for an even greater contrast in low tide to high tide, resulting in even more levels to the sea. Sandcastles, sunbathing and volleyball are but a few of the activities my family and I are so eager to partake in, during the peak of low

Waves Jenson Ives

Moon Max Frenzel

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T H E L AY E R S 0 F C L O U D S

RICHARD KING

THE LAYERS OF CLOUDS

The Layers of Clouds Without clouds, we cannot exist. Clouds are fascinating with their different shapes and layers. They are formed from water vapour and are large areas of ice crystals or water droplets. When warm air containing water molecules rises and condenses, some water molecules released and forms clouds that display a colour for us to see. The white that is seen in a cloud is due to the water droplets scattering the rays from the sun. The grey colouring in some clouds is because they have too many water droplets or ice crystals. The clouds appear to ‘float’ because warmer air is lighter than cooler air, so if the cloud is warmer than the air surrounding it, the cloud shall float and move. Clouds can move due to the wind blowing it around as the particles are not stronger than it. Stratus The lowest (up to 2,000 meters above sea level) layer of clouds is the stratus layer. Stratus clouds will most likely be grey or white. During a stable day, the stratus clouds may form from a gentle breeze moving cool, moist air. Depending on the conditions, the clouds can be a variety of densities. The stratus clouds rarely, if ever, cause precipitationll unless the density is extremely high, but they can form a mist or fog as they are the lowest cloud layer. From what we know, the stratus layer can be categorized as: stratus nebulosus (featureless, dark layer that may produce a light drizzle) and stratus fractus (a stratus layer which is starting to or is breaking up or ‘dissipate’). Alto The ‘middle layer’ (anywhere between 2,000 and 5,500 meters) can be known as the ‘alto’ layer. It contains two types of cloud groups: altocumulus and altostratus. Each cloud group has a similar height so that is why they can be categorized as the ‘alto’ layer. Altostratus clouds start as a thin cloud from either a separation or a branch of a veil of gradually thickening cirrostratus clouds. Altostratus clouds are usually grey or blue with few to little features. The sun will usually be unable to shine rays through altostratus clouds and this can cause optical effects like coronas or iridescence. They often form >

Rainbow Tariq Ahmed

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ahead of warm or obstructed fronts, but as the front passes, these clouds bulk out to become nimbostratus clouds (which can produce rain or snow). Altocumulus clouds are generally associated with settled weather that will commonly appear with a white or grey shading depending on its features. Altocumulus clouds exist in patches of clouds commonly found as rounded clumps. Depending on which differing cloud is created, the formation process of altocumulus clouds could happen as a breakup in an altostratus cloud, the lifting of a warm air pocket cooled by gentle winds or turbulence or mountainous terrain creating different atmospheric waves. Due to altocumulus clouds found in settled weather, they rarely rain; even if they do, it will rarely reach the ground instead forming a wisp that is retracing it steps back to the clouds. Cirrus The highest (5,500 meters to about 12,200 meters) layer of clouds is known as the cirrus layer, and it is comprised of long stranded, hair-like clouds. They are primarily made of ice crystals as they are very high, so are whiter than any other

cloud. During the day, they will be whiter than any other clouds but during sunset or sunrise they will take onboard the colours of the sunset or sunrise. Cirrus clouds form naturally or with the assistance of humans: they form ahead of a warm from and indicate a change in the weather is coming and can develop from the trails left by airplanes. The cirrus layer has several different clouds found within itself: cirrus fibratus, this cloud consists of two parallel, thin stripes that will follow the direction of the wind; cirrus uncinus, when translated into English the word uncinus means hook and that is what it looks like as a cloud, or it can be known to be a ‘horse’s tail’; cirrus spissatus, is right at the end of the troposphere (10,000 meters) and is very; cirrus floccus, it is more ragged or cotton wool-like in patches than other cirrus family members or floccus members; and cirrus castellanus, more vertically developed than its neighbor (cirrus floccus) and the tops can look a tad more like turrets. Special Clouds Fog is when your visibility has decreased to below 1 kilometer (for weather forecasts it is usually 180 meters) whilst

mist is anything above 1 kilometer. On the other hand, is haze which is completely different and is the suspension of tiny, dry particles which are invisible to the naked eye but together, the particles can make the air look more opalescent. Other than the distances mist and fog are the same thing. Fog and mist are just an extremely low-lying cloud containing millions of water molecules and ice crystals, but fog and mist can only appear when the surface of the Earth is cool so that the warm air will cool close to the surface. Virga clouds are long, hair-like that will form when the rain from a cloud dissipates before it hits the ground. They come from the base of the cloud and when a sunrise or sunset is occurring, they have a golden tint to them which makes them look gorgeous. Although they are a sight, virga clouds can cause turbulence for plains due to the water vapor from the rain taking a lot of the moisture in that area (there is not a lot of water molecules except for clouds at that altitude). Some people may call virga clouds ‘ jellyfish’ clouds because the cloud is like the head of the jellyfish and the small lines coming from the head are like a jellyfish’s stingers. Even though contrails or condensation trails are created by

planes, they are a cloud! They will come in lines or be longer than wide and are just a tiny amount of water vapor. Water vapor is a biproduct of burning airplane fuel so due to the high altitude of 6,000 meters, the water vapor will rapidly freeze and stay petrified in the air. If the air is very dry, the water vapor will then further turn into a solid (sublimation) but otherwise it will just spread out a bit and create a fluffier cloud. Since contrails are not very dense, they shall not produce any rain (unless they merge with another cloud). Clouds, like many other features on earth, are very interesting and they have been split into multiple layers and further split into categories. Each category has its own unique features in the way that higher clouds are more ice crystals than water vapor. Not only are there different layers, but there are also clouds like contrails and virga clouds which are captivating as well. On a personal note, the clouds are a beautiful part of our world and I really enjoyed gazing at them outside of my window whilst making this.

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T H E L AY E R S O F T H E AT M O S P H E R E

SAMUEL HARWOOD

THE LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Northern Lights Manas Mapara

The Layers of the Atmosphere Troposphere

Exosphere The exosphere is located between 700 and 10,000 kilometres above the Earth’s surface, and it is the highest layer in the Earth’s atmosphere. At the top of the exosphere layer, it merges with solar wind. Any molecules found here have extremely low density, meaning that this layer does not behave like a gas, and particles here escape into space. Even though there is no weather in this layer, the aurora borealis and aurora australis are sometimes seen in the lowest part. Most satellites orbit in the exosphere.

The troposphere is the first layer of the atmosphere. It goes up to 12 kilometres high and contains around 99% of all the water vapour and aerosols. It is probably the most important layer, as it is where we all live. Most of the weather happens in this layer, apart from the cumulonimbus thunder clouds, whose tops can rise to the bottom of the Stratosphere. Stratosphere This is probably the most well-known layer and is found from 12-50 kilometres off the ground. It is home to the ozone layer, which is extremely important, as it protects us from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. This means that the stratosphere and the troposphere are protected from the Sun’s rays whereas the other layers aren’t. It is nearly free from clouds and weather, apart from polar stratospheric clouds, which are sometimes there in its lowest, coldest altitudes. Mesosphere The mesosphere is located from 50 to 80 kilometres above ground, and gets increasingly colder with altitude. The top of the mesosphere layer is the coldest place found within the Earth system, with an average temperature of -85 degrees Celsius. Because of the scarce amount of water vapour at the top of the mesosphere layer, noctilucent clouds are formed, which are the highest clouds in the Earth’s atmosphere, which can be seen by the naked eye under certain conditions and at certain times of the day. This layer is where most meteors burn up, and sounding rockets and rocket powered aircraft can reach this layer. Thermosphere The thermosphere layer is positioned between 80 to 700 kilometres in the air. The lowest part of the thermosphere is where the ionosphere is found. In the thermosphere, the temperature increases with altitude because of the very low density of the molecules found here. It is cloud and water vapour free. The aurora borealis and aurora australis are usually found here. The International Space Station orbits in the thermosphere.

Udaipur Kishan Popat

Sunset Jenson Ives

Sunset Beams Anay Desai

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I C E C O R E S O F G R E E N L A N D

ROBERT COOMBE

ICE CORES OF GREENLAND

Celsius. When examining the ice cores, scientists look for three important details: the ratio of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes to indicate former temperatures; the air bubbles in the core can be analysed to see the methane and carbon dioxide concentrations; and the radioactive elements (artificial or natural) in the ice can be studied to determine the date of the layers of ice. The data provided by the ice cores can then be compared with data from the present day, to help us analyse trends in temperature and greenhouse gas levels. Most of our data to prove climate change derives from ice cores, and this is due to the physical nature of their being layers of ice. Given that the lower down layers of ice have literally frozen data from years in the past, they act as an extremely reliable measure. A problem we may face in the future is that as ice sheets melt the central scientific evidence to plot the climate of the past disappears with it. Thus, it is imperative, that ice cores continue to be cored, stored and examined as soon there may be significantly less ice for us to analyse!

Ice Cores of Greenland Ice Cores are one the best ways for today’s climatologists to reconstruct the climate of the past, and prove to its many sceptics, that anthropogenic climate change is a real phenomenon and that carbon dioxide concentrations and the average global temperature are rising. Greenland is one of the best spots to collect and examine ice cores. Due to its vast size and very low population density, 0.028 people per square kilometre, most of Greenland’s ice sheets and glaciers have been untouched by humans and are well preserved and uncontaminated. Greenland’s ice cores can be used to measure the climate up to 130,000 years ago. 79% of Greenland is covered in ice, making it a playground for climatologists trying to uncover the climate of earlier periods of the Quaternary. Ice is split into layers, and the Ice at the top of the sheet is the snow that has fallen most recently, but the further down you go into the ice sheet, the further back in time you go. The ice at the bottom layer of the sheet is from snow that would have fallen many millennia ago, and that ice can provide us vital information about the temperature and carbon dioxide levels in the past. At its thickest, the Greenland Ice Sheet is three kilometres deep, and scientists are desperate to try to retrieve ice right at the bottom of the layer, as it will provide us with an image of the climate much longer ago. The problem is that the drills can only dig out ice cores at a of max six metres in length at a time, and due to the freezing conditions in Greenland, it makes it hard for scientists to drill for extensive periods of time. Nevertheless, after 500 drills or so, ice cores formed up to 130,000 years ago are drilled out, transported, and then stored by universities and labs to be examined. Projects like the Greenland Ice Sheet Project and the East Greenland Ice Core Project have been established, with funding from US and Swiss science foundations, to carry out the drilling and experiments. The ice cores are often shipped back to the US and stored in the National Science Foundation’s great big ice core ‘freezer’, which is 55,000 cubic feet in size and is held at -36 degrees

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I C E C O R E S O F G R E E N L A N D

Ice Reece Vecchi

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T H E L AY E R E D E V O L U T I O N O F A S E A L

SEB MANSFIELD

THE LAYERED EVOLUTION OF A SEAL

Ocean Life Darsh Tulsian

species. Penguins were now in the southern hemisphere and echo locating dolphins had just entered the waters. The new species of dolphin created competition for food, meaning the seal had to become more adapted to fishing - which it did! The seal became more agile as its spine became more flexible. The seals and new sea creatures offered food for larger predators such as the raptorial sperm whales, which ate vertebrate prey such as seals. This may have also explained their new, more flexible spine. These new sea creatures also showed how the ocean has evolved and therefore is layered. Four hundred million years ago, the ‘Balian’ whales started to reach their full size. This could have led to the extinction of the ‘Megalodon’ and subsequently the era of ‘Super Predators’ and started the era of the smaller apex predators such as ‘Great Whites’ and ‘Orcas’. This was because the super predators were whale hunting specialists and when the whales got bigger the ‘Super-Predators’were therefore unable kill the whales. The ‘Super-Predators’ were not seal-hunting specialists, meaning the super predators had a lack of food, which – along with other factors – led to their extinction. These new apex predators focused on hunting seals. This meant that seals may have led to selective pressures, ultimately changing the apex predators of the ocean. This meant they drove the evolution of some apex predators, ultimately changing the oceanic environment. To conclude, there is absolute certainty, based on DNA and other scientific evidence, that seals are definitely related to their early land ancestors, as they have changed from the ‘Puijila Darwini’ to ‘Enaliartcos’ to ‘Eotaria Crypta’ to the seals which we know today. This clearly shows layers of evolution within the seal. The evidence indicates that the seal’s evolutionary process has been one out of necessity. Many scientists wonder which future evolutionary changes there will be for the seal, due to what is going on environmentally. However, the evolution of seals doesn’t just suggest changes in very early times. There is a lot of evidence to suggest they had to evolve in the early 1970’s as well, due to their environment being destroyed and a lack of food available. This shows how the layers of the seals are only going to continue diversify as they adapt to the changing world in which we live.

There is evidence to suggest that seals have been on the Earth for around 23 million years (the early Miocene). There was a mammalian creature which lived in Canada. It looked like an otter and behaved like an otter; however, it was actually related to the seal. This creature was called a ‘Puijila Darwini’. The fact that it acted and lived like an otter shows that these seals were once predominantly land animals. During the same period, there was another freshwater otter like the seal that lived in the Northern Hemisphere around Germany and France, called ‘Patamotherum’. At this time, there was also a more seal like sea mammal that would have swam on the West coast of America, called ‘Enaliarctos’. These two types of seal overlapped for a large amount of time. This showed layers within the earliest seals. Within the ‘Pinnipedian’ group there are 3 sub-sections. The ‘Phocidae’ ( earless seals and most Arctic seals), the ‘Otariidae’ ( Seal Lions) and the ‘Odobenidae’, ( the walrus ). All three types use different methods of propulsion. This suggests that these seals came from two land heritages. This evidence clearly shows how the seal’s history is layered. The ‘Enaliarctos’ is the only type of seal that lived on to the present day. It has a short tail and legs, which you could say were fins. However, the legs of this species were still much longer than a common seal. This was because the ‘Enaliarctos’ swam with it’s back legs. This means that over time their appendages have changed into flippers, making them better adapted for life in water. The ‘Enaliarctos’ would have spent more time on the shore than seals nowadays as they are better adapted to killing their prey out of the water, as their teeth were more similar to those of the bear, and therefore were better at slicing than piercing – meaning they had to return to shore. If this change did not occur, scientists believe that the seal would have been extinct millions of years ago. However, a seal called ‘Eotaria Crypta’, that lived 16 million years ago, showed the beginnings of the modern seal, as its jaw moved away from the previously bear-like jaw. This newly evolved seal jaw meant that they were more adapted to aquatic life, as they could now eat their prey in the water. This clear anatomical change shows how seals have had multiple evolutionary layers. In the late Oligoceine and Miocene ages, the environment was changing, leading to the seal we know today. There was an increase in ‘Balian’ whale

Evolution is defined as the process by which different kinds of living organism are believed to have developed from their earlier forms during the history of the Earth. There is evolution in every animal on this planet and it can be seen more clearly in some animals compared to others. Seals are carnivorous sea mammals, scientifically known as ‘Pinnipeds’. There is scientific evidence that seals have evolved from land animals in the past, to the seals that we know today. In this process of evolution, there are layers of change within the ocean and within the seal itself.

Seal Seb Mansfield

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L AY E R S O F T H E S O V I E T U N I O N

CHARLES WADDINGTON

LAYERS OF THE SOVIET UNION

The Soviet Union, a socialist state, stood from 1922 to 1991. It had land in both Asia and Europe, dominant on the global map with the expansive area it maintained and its immense 293 million population, ranking third largest in the world in 1991. As the Union collapsed completely in 1991 due to economic stagnancy, over-stretched military and public dissatisfaction of a collective economy, new countries started to appear on the map, creating a reformed and layered global picture. Coming out of a long period ruled by Communism in the Union for the prior seventy years or so, the development of the post-Soviet countries was far behind that of the Western European countries. In an effort to begin catching up, twelve of the fifteen countries signed up to the Commonwealth of Independent States, or CIS. With its creation, the intergovernmental organisation encouraged cooperation in economic, political and military affairs between members, softening the impact of previous total interdependency on the Soviet Union. It remains in place to this day but, throughout the years, has lost three member states. Those who didn’t sign, the Baltic states, managed to achieve membership in the European Union and NATO instead, pushing their economies and living standards towards those of the West much more quickly than their fellow post-Soviet nations. Economic stability and improvement were hugely important when the Soviet Union dissolved. Making sure the newly independent states could survive individually was the key priority for their leaders. The majority of them transitioned from a command economy, one where governments own the factors of production to reach a social objective, as used in the USSR, to a market economy, one where private ownership is used as the means of production to reach a profit objective. Russia’s capitalist economy was 70% privatised by the middle of 1994. However, in the aftermath of such a drastic shift, each country’s gross domestic products fell significantly and triggered a severe economic decline. Armenia’s GDP fell by 59.3% and Russia’s by 44.7% in the first few years spent out of the Union. The post-Soviet republics lacked institutional capacity to tackle the new economic challenges. Corruption also stood a big economic challenge and still stands one to this

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a smooth transition to entire independence whilst permitting growth was unrealistic. For example, dependency on Russia’s energy was a huge complication for many countries, including Ukraine. Without the supply of energy Ukraine would be hopeless. Furthermore, every generation of the population of these countries had not lived an economically active life without the structure the Union had provided, hence leading to a lack of experienced management, effective organisation and skills to navigate a development strategy for the near- and long-term future in an open market economy. The years that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union were the most difficult times for each of the post-Soviet countries, across Eastern Europe and into central Asia, as they

day. The “gold rush” environment that occurred as economies privatised meant it was inevitable that corruption would occur when people found out what they could gain from income inequality. The main issue with corruption is that it drains economic energies from an already struggling country, whilst corrupting political operations and invalidating the law, a key structure for a newly evolved country. These economic set backs were a huge hinderance that placed the regenerating countries on the back foot on their quest to catch up to the West. The overarching issue was that all the countries of the Soviet Union were formerly completely dependent and integrated with the other member states. Any expectation of

had an absence of experience and little sense of direction. Since the start of the twenty-first century, many of the republics have found their feet and are now well developed. Estonia stands twenty-ninth in the Human Development Index, with Lithuania thirty-fourth and Latvia thirty-seventh. However, the countries in central Asia, including Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, are still considerably behind those in Europe, especially the Balkan states. The re-layering of the Soviet Union has meant each of the newly formed countries have had their own experience of freedom, with huge diversity over economic and political stability. Will the re-drawing stay as it is or is there another phase to come? One only has to look at what Russia are doing with the migrant crisis in Belarus or their involvement in Crimea, Ukraine to see that Mother Russia is trying to flex its muscles again.

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L AY E R S O F E M E R G I N G I N D I A

SUHAN SHAH

LAYERS OF EMERGING INDIA

The Limpopo River All images by Matthew Duggleby, Divisions, Year 10

In modern, emerging India, there are three core layers in the transition from urban to rural areas. Firstly, the well developed and completely industrialised cities, come together to form ‘Metro India’, including Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad. The second layer is industrialising cities and towns, which mostly consist of state capitals; these are mostly known as ‘India-Bharat’ cities. The third and final layer is ‘Bharat’, this layer mainly consists of all the agricultural parts of the country. To be able to understand and influence the country’s future, we must understand what connects them and what divides them and how the politics and economics work. In the first layer, we start with Metro India. This is the vast majority of Indians, who use the internet for work, to study and aspire to work in transnational corporations; they are quite heavily interacted in the westernised world. Another massive influence is the Anglo-phone Western population, with whom Metro India share a common language and a diasporic population. Many people suggest that the west is the main and primary inspiration of Metro India’s own future but also the long-term vision of India’s future. The role of the media has reinforced the idea that India consists of simply Metro India; these locations could be excellent settings to shoot a nice movie or to convey some heart-breaking news story, but there is much more to the India. ‘India-Bharat’ covers a much larger physical area than Metro India. It encompasses diverse places. Much of India Bharat, especially in the south and west, is booming. This layer of India is benefiting from an increase in urbanisation, a huge upgrade in the development of the infrastructure and an explosion in media, mainly large forms of social media, television and to a lesser extent in print through newspapers. The media is more of a regional source of information than a national one. Political involvement is much deeper than Metro India, but the inspiration of the future is derived from Metro India. Understandably, India Bharat is in a transition phase between Metro India and Bharat. Thirdly, Bharat covers a vast majority of the country, both in size and in population. Its material and social condition

Temple, India Dhylan Halai

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differentiates greatly but correlates with the many India Bharat areas. For the most part, the economy has been in doldrums, reliant on the primary economy that simply does not pay enough for people’s livelihoods. In addition, it is also very unsustainable to do due to the monsoonal and future climatic, small land holdings, and the neglect by government policies. In modern, democratic India, this is a vital part during an election time; it constantly throws different people in and out of power. Regardless of the ethics of these layers and how they formed, if India wants to succeed as a nation, they must be clear of future developmental polices for each layer.

Stack Dhylan Halai

Udaipur Kishan Popat

Temple, India Dhylan Halai

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DYLAN PATEL

LAYERS OF DELHI

But what about industrialisation? In environmental impact of industrialisation is a dilemma for not just Delhi, but for the whole of India. It is difficult to develop industry – a key factor in India’s economic growth – whilst maintaining environmental stability. In other words, they must dramatically reduce their carbon footprint while at the same time attempt to maintain economic prosperity. However, I do believe that this can be managed: adopting new modes of public transport and new sources of energy is key to environmental development and long-term industrial development in the city. This will create jobs and provide improved services to residents. An example that has been already introduced; the e-rickshaw, which provides the same service as a rickshaw and is more sustainable. In summary, pollution has influenced Delhi’s residents and tourism industry. While I believe that Delhi is on its way to becoming more sustainable and reducing levels of pollution, the city must choose whether to continue to rapidly develop its industry, whether to try and achieve environmental stability as quickly as possible. As it stands, current levels of pollution are already affecting Delhi’s many layers of culture and heritage.

Delhi, Northern India. A vibrant city with a population of over 31 million people. Located on the historic Yamuna River and encompassing the nation’s capital, New Delhi. But what effect has air pollution had on the layers of this metropolis? Pollution in Delhi is an ongoing issue. Poor air quality damages half of all children’s lungs and is affecting all parts of Delhi. Particularly at risk is Chandni Chowk, an area which includes the Red Fort UNESCO World Heritage site, which is often covered in smog. Chandni Chowk has four times the national standard of particulate air matter. Considering Delhi’s population density, air pollution is a growing concern. Why is there so much pollution in Delhi? There are several reasons. The first is that with a city of 31 million people and a growing middle class, there are bound to be a vast number of vehicles. If these vehicles burn petrol or diesel, they release carbon dioxide, nitrous dioxide, soot and levels of smoke. However, actions have been taken to limit this, including certain time periods where vehicles are restricted. Waste in Delhi is also an issue. Approximately 58% of New Delhi’s waste is dumped into the Yamuna River. However, an alternative way of disposing of waste is by burning it producing carbon dioxide and exacerbating air pollution. Not all waste has to be discarded, some can be recycled. India’s first construction and demolition waste recycling facility has been set up in North Delhi, meaning some potentially polluting products can be recycled and reused. In fact, the COVID-19 Pandemic had a positive effect on the levels of pollution of the Yamuna River as new restrictions and new methods of disposal has led to less waste dumped in the river. What effect does the pollution have on tourism? Before the COVID-19 outbreak, tourists were ever present in Delhi as they flocked to see the Qutub Minar and Gate of India. Although visitor numbers grew by 2.2% in 2019, the layers of smog which engulf the city are beginning to impact this booming industry. Tourism is an important facet to consider as it helps the country thrive and share its values through its historic sites, pristine beaches, and local cuisine. Delhi must respond to its air pollution issue to help tourism bounce back after COVID-19.

Udaipur Kishan Popat

Udaipur Kishan Popat

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